The authors acknowledge the financial support provided by the Transportation Pooled Fund led by the PNS Association through the Washington State DOT, the USDOT RITA , and the ChuTian Scholar Visiting Professorship Fund by the Hubei Department of Education (Wuhan Polytechnic University) . The Pooled Fund has the following members: 11 State DOTs (WA, ID, OR, MT, CO, IN, IO, MN, ND, UT, and VA), America West, Redmond Materials, and Tetra Technologies. We are indebted to the Technical Advisory Committee and the Chemical Technical Subcommittee for providing technical guidance for this study. We also appreciate our collaborators at the MSU: Dr. Benfang Lei of the Veterinary Molecular Biology (VMB) Department for the use of the UV–vis; and Eli Cuelho at WTI for the use of TRANSEND Cold Regions Rural Transportation Field Test-bed. Finally, we owe our thanks to the following individuals for providing assistance in various stages of this work: Mengyao Liu at VMB, and Marijean M. Peterson, Michelle Akin and Jason Harwood at WTI.